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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Display rules</span></span>

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<p><b>Display rules</b> are a social group or culture's informal norms that distinguish how one should express oneself.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They function as a way to maintain the social order of a given culture, creating an expected standard of behaviour to guide people in their interactions. Display rules can help to decrease situational ambiguity, help individuals to be accepted by their social groups, and can help groups to increase their group efficacy. <sup id="cite_ref-:9_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>They can be described as culturally prescribed rules that people learn early on in their lives by interactions and socializations with other people.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of a social group learn these cultural standards at a young age which determine when one would express certain emotions, where and to what extent.

</p><p>Emotions can be conveyed through both non-verbal interactions such as facial expressions, hand gestures and body language as well as verbal interactions. People are able to intensify emotions in certain situations such as smiling widely even when they receive a gift that they are not happy about or "masking" their <a href="Negative_emotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative emotion">negative emotions</a> with a polite smile. As well, people learn to de-intensify emotions in situations such as suppressing the urge to laugh when somebody falls or neutralizing their emotions such as maintaining a serious poker face after being dealt a good hand.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Display rules determine how we act and to what extent an emotion is expressed in any given situation. They are often used to protect one's own <a href="Self-image" title="Self-image">self-image</a> or those of another person.

</p><p>The understanding of display rules is a complex, multifaceted task. Display rules are understood differentially depending upon their mode of expression (verbal/facial) and the motivation for their use (prosocial/self-protective).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emotion">Emotion</h2></div>

<p><a href="Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">Emotions</a> can be defined as brief, specific, and multidimensional responses to challenges or opportunities that are important to both personal and social goals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emotions last up to a few seconds or minutes, and not hours or days.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emotions are very specific which suggests that there is a clear reason why a person may be feeling a certain emotion.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emotions are also used to help individuals achieve their social goals. Individuals may respond to certain challenges or opportunities during social interactions with different emotions. The selected emotions can guide a specific goal-directed behavior that can either support or hinder social relationships.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concepts_of_emotion">Concepts of emotion</h3></div>

<p>Emotions can be broken down into different components. The first component of emotion is the appraisal stage. In this stage, individuals process an event and its impact on their personal goals. Depending on the outcome, the individual will either go through positive or negative feelings.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Next, there are distinct physiological responses such as blushing, increased heart rate or sweating.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following stage of emotion is the expressive behavior; vocal or facial expressions follow an emotional state and serve to communicate their reactions or intentions (social). The fourth component is the subjective feeling,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which refers to the quality that defines the experience of a specific emotion by expressing it by words or other methods. Finally, the last component is action tendencies. This suggests that emotion will motivate or guide specific behavior and bodily responses.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_of_emotion">Theories of emotion</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Emotions" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotions">Emotions</a></div>

<p>Emotions can be expressed verbally, with facial expressions, and with gestures. Darwin's hypothesis concerning emotion stated that the way emotions are expressed is universal, and therefore independent of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ekman and Friesen conducted a study to test this theory. The study included introducing basic emotions found in the western world and introduced them to different cultures around the world (Japan, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and the United States).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Across the 5 cultures they were all able to accurately determine the emotion (success rates of 70–90%). They also introduced these selected emotions to an isolated community in Papua New Guinea that was not in contact with the western world.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results revealed that both the other cultures and isolated communities could effectively match and detect the emotional meaning of the different faces. This became evidence that emotions are expressed facially in the same way across the world.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div>

<p>Culture is defined as "shared behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, and values communicated from generation to generation via language or some other means."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unique individuals within cultures acquire differences affecting displays of emotions emphasized by one's status, role, and diverse behaviours. Some cultures value certain emotions more over others. The <a href="Affect_theory" title="Affect theory">affect theory</a> argues that emotions that promote important cultural ideals will become focal in their social interactions. For example in America, they value the emotion excitement as it represents the cultural idea of independence. In many Asian cultures it is inappropriate to discuss personal enthusiasms. Greater value is placed on emotions such as calmness and contentedness, representing the ideal harmonious relationships. These different cultural values affect a person's everyday behaviours, decisions and emotional display.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>People learn how to greet one another, how to interact with others, what, where, when and how to display emotions through the people they interact with and the place they grow up in. Everything can be traced back to one's culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gestures is an example of how one may express oneself, however these gestures represent different meanings depending on the culture. For example, in Canada, sticking out one's tongue is a sign of disgust or disapproval, however in Tibet it is a sign of respect when greeting someone. In America, holding one's middle and index fingers up makes the <a href="V_sign" title="V sign">peace sign</a>, while in some countries such as the UK and Australia it a sign of disrespect.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>High and low-contact cultures also vary in the amount of physical interaction and direct contact there is during one-on-one communication. High-contact cultures involve people practicing direct eye contact, frequent touching, physical contact, and having close proximity to others. Examples of countries that have a high-contact culture include Mexico, Italy, and Brazil. Low-contact cultures involve people who practice less direct eye contact, little touching, have indirect body orientation, and more physical distance between people. Examples of countries that have a low-contact culture include the United States, Canada, and Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Individualist and collectivistic cultures have different social norms for display rules. Personal feelings and expressionism tend to have greater importance in individualistic cultures than collectivistic ones. Although there is still variability within the two, further research is needed on intercultural variability. It is hypothesized that there would be greater ingroup differences within individualistic cultures from person to person, known as interindividual variations.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_influence">Social influence</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_and_peers">Family and peers</h3></div>

<p>Ekman and Friesen (1975) have suggested that unwritten codes or "display rules" govern the manner in which emotions may be expressed, and that different rules may be internalized as a function of an individual's culture, gender or family background.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, many different cultures necessitate that particular emotions should be masked and that other emotions should be expressed drastically. Emotions can have significant consequences on the founding of <a href="Interpersonal_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpersonal relationships">interpersonal relationships</a>.

</p><p>Children's understanding and use of display rules is strongly associated with their social competence and surrounding.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many personal display rules are learned in the context of a particular family or experience; many expressive behaviour and rule displays are adopted by copying or adopting similar behaviours than their social and familial surrounding.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parents' affect and control influence their children's display rule through both positive and negative responses.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mcdowell and Parke (2005) suggested that parents who exert more control over their children's emotions/behaviour would deprive them of many opportunities to learn about appropriate vs. inappropriate emotional/rule displays.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, by depriving children from learning through control (i.e. not allowing them to learn from their own mistakes), parents are restraining children's learning of prosocial rule display.

</p><p>The social environment can influence whether one controls or displays their emotions. There are few factors influencing the children's decision to either control or express an emotion that they are experiencing including the type of audience. In fact, depending on if children are in the presence of peers or of family (i.e. mother or father), they will report different control over their expression of emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless of the type of emotion experienced, children control significantly more their expression of emotion in the presence of peers than when they are with their caregiver or alone.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="School_environment">School environment</h3></div>

<p>The school environment is also a place where emotions and behaviours are influenced. During a child's grade school years, they can become increasingly more aware of the accepted display rules that are found in their social environment. They learn more and more about which emotions to express and which emotions not to express in certain social situations at school.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emotions_and_social_relationships">Emotions and social relationships</h3></div>

<p>Emotions can serve as a way of communicating with others and can guide social interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being able to express or understand other emotions can help encourage social interactions and help achieve personal goals. When expressing or understanding one's emotions is difficult, social interactions can be negatively impacted.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Emotional intelligence is a concept that is defined by four skills:<sup id="cite_ref-:6_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:7_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ol><li>The ability to accurately perceive other emotions.</li>

<li>The ability to understand one's own emotions.</li>

<li>The ability to use current feelings to help in making decisions.</li>

<li>The ability to manage one's emotions to best match the current situation.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Social_emotional_development" title="Social emotional development">Social emotional development</a></div>

<p>Age plays an important role in the development of display rules. Throughout life a person will gain experience and have more social interactions. According to a study by Jones,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> social interactions are the main factor in the creation and understanding of display rules. It starts at a very young age with family, and continues with peers. By meeting more people, facing more challenges, and advancing in life, a person will develop different responses which will depend mostly on the age of the person. This explains why a young person will have different social interactions than someone older.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infancy">Infancy</h3></div>

<p>Infancy is a complex period when studying display rules. At a very young age, an <a href="Infant" title="Infant">infant</a> does not know how to talk, therefore they express themselves in different ways. In order to communicate with others, they use facial and vocal displays that are specific for each age-period. A study conducted by Malatesta and Haviland<sup id="cite_ref-:8_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> demonstrated that a baby can have 10 different categories for facial expression:

</p>

<ul><li>Interest</li>

<li>Enjoyment</li>

<li>Surprise</li>

<li>Sadness/distress</li>

<li>Anger</li>

<li>Discomfort/pain</li>

<li>Brow flash</li>

<li>Disgust</li></ul>

<p>However, <a href="Fear" title="Fear">fear</a> and <a href="Disgust" title="Disgust">disgust</a> will develop progressively during childhood. They are complex facial expressions that require knowledge and understanding and must be learned, not copied; this is why not everybody is afraid of the same things. Most of the facial expressions will be learned through the parents, mainly from the mother. The mother-infant<sup id="cite_ref-:8_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> relationship is key in the development of display rules during infancy. It is the synchrony of mother-infant expressions. To express themselves vocally babies require the use of "screaming" or "crying". There is no differentiation for the request of a baby. This is why the relationship with the parents is important: they must teach the infant when and for what reason to cry (i.e. need of food).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood">Childhood</h3></div>

<p>During <a href="Childhood" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood">childhood</a>, the expression of display rules becomes more complex. Children develop the ability to modulate their emotional expressions growing up, this development depends on the level of maturity and the level of <a href="Social_relation" title="Social relation">social interactions</a> with others. Children growing up start to become aware of oneself and slowly aware of others. At this time, they understand the importance of non-verbal communication, and shape the manner in which emotion may be expressed, with this change in perception, children will internalize different rules. Those rules are relative to two major factors:

</p>

<ul><li>The <a href="Social_environment" title="Social environment">environment</a>: The social environment impacts the way someone reacts emotionally. The audience and the context are essential to understand display rules among children.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>The <a href="Temperament" title="Temperament">temperament</a>: According to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bu.edu/psych/faculty/lesbro/">Leslie Brody</a>, parents that <a href="Socialization" title="Socialization">socialise</a> their kids the same way with equal level of nurturance, will observe different responses and reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>These two factors will help create "personal display rules" and the development of a sense of <a href="Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> toward others (i.e., feeling sad when a friend lost a relative even if one did not know the person).

</p><p>This process will continue to change and grow until adulthood. During adolescence, a transition period where the person is not a child anymore but not an adult yet, is a test period as they learn to deal with internal conflict. Emotions are more intense and harder to control due to the hormonal changes that come at this period of time.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adulthood">Adulthood</h3></div>

<p>During adulthood, people are capable of using a lot of different display rules depending on the situation they are facing and the people they are with. Society governs how and when someone should express emotions, however display rules are not something static, they are in a constant evolution. Therefore, even during adulthood, a person will develop new ways to hide, express or cope with emotions. At the same time, adults will develop a greater control of their feelings and this can be seen mostly in the work environment. A study presented by the <i><a href="Journal_of_Occupational_Health_Psychology" title="Journal of Occupational Health Psychology">Journal of Occupational Health Psychology</a></i> showed that nurses working in the same environment are more likely to share the same display rules in order to achieve an organisational objective. Display rules are not only personal, but they are shared between people and can differ according to the hierarchy of the society.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">Developmental psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_labor" title="Emotional labor">Emotional labor</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotions_and_culture#Cultural_norms_of_emotions" title="Emotions and culture">Emotions and culture § Cultural norms of emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_emotions" title="History of emotions">History of emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Status_quo" title="Status quo">Status quo</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-:5-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZemanGarber1996" class="citation journal cs1">Zeman, Janice; Garber, Judy (1996). "Display Rules for Anger, Sadness, and Pain: It Depends on Who Is Watching". <i>Child Development</i>. <b>67</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">957–</span>973. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1131873">10.2307/1131873</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1131873">1131873</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8706538">8706538</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:7-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBrackettSalovey2007" class="citation book cs1">Brackett, Marc A.; Salovey, Peter (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/socialpsychology/n177.xml">"Emotional Intelligence"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Social Psychology</i>. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. p. 294. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412956253.n177">10.4135/9781412956253.n177</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781412916707</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZemanGarber1996" class="citation journal cs1">Zeman, Janice; Garber, Judy (1996-06-01). "Display Rules for Anger, Sadness, and Pain: It Depends on Who Is Watching". <i>Child Development</i>. <b>67</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">957–</span>973. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8624.1996.tb01776.x">10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01776.x</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1467-8624">1467-8624</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8706538">8706538</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFischer2000" class="citation book cs1">Fischer, Agneta (2000-03-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tS1C8Sl5ysEC&dq=temperament+and+display+rules&pg=PA24"><i>Gender and Emotion: Social Psychological Perspectives</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780521639866</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDiefendorffEricksonGrandeyDahling2011" class="citation journal cs1">Diefendorff, James M.; Erickson, Rebecca J.; Grandey, Alicia A.; Dahling, Jason J. (April 2011). "Emotional display rules as work unit norms: a multilevel analysis of emotional labor among nurses". <i>Journal of Occupational Health Psychology</i>. <b>16</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">170–</span>186. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0021725">10.1037/a0021725</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1939-1307">1939-1307</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21244168">21244168</a>.</cite></span>

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</style><div id="Nonverbal_communication97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">Nonverbal communication</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modalities97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">Modalities</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blushing" title="Blushing">Blushing</a></li>

<li><a href="Body_language" title="Body language">Body language</a> / <a href="Kinesics" title="Kinesics">Kinesics</a></li>

<li><a href="Body-to-body_communication" title="Body-to-body communication">Body-to-body communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a>

<ul><li><a href="Facial_Action_Coding_System" title="Facial Action Coding System">Facial Action Coding System</a></li>

<li><a href="Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li>

<li><a href="Subtle_expression" title="Subtle expression">Subtle expression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gesture" title="Gesture">Gesture</a>

<li><a href="Speech-independent_gestures" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech-independent gestures">Speech-independent gestures</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Haptic_communication" title="Haptic communication">Haptic communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Imitation" title="Imitation">Imitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronization#Human_movement" title="Synchronization">Interpersonal synchrony</a></li>

<li><a href="Laughter" title="Laughter">Laughter</a></li>

<li><a href="Oculesics" title="Oculesics">Oculesics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Eye_contact" title="Eye contact">Eye contact</a></li>

<li><a href="Pupillary_response" title="Pupillary response">Pupil dilation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Olfactic_communication" title="Olfactic communication">Olfaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Posture_(psychology)" title="Posture (psychology)">Posture</a></li>

<li><a href="Proxemics" title="Proxemics">Proxemics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affect_(linguistics)" title="Affect (linguistics)">Affect</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_prosody" title="Emotional prosody">Emotional prosody</a></li>

<li><a href="Paralanguage" title="Paralanguage">Paralanguage</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a></li>

<li><a href="Loudness" title="Loudness">Loudness</a></li>

<li><a href="Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">Prosody</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhythm" title="Rhythm">Rhythm</a></li>

<li><a href="Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonation" title="Phonation">Voice quality</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social context</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li>

<li><a href="Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li>

<li><a href="Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">Habitus</a></li>

<li><a href="High-context_and_low-context_cultures" title="High-context and low-context cultures">High-context and low-context cultures</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationship</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norm</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Emoticon" title="Emoticon">Emoticon</a> / <a href="Smiley" title="Smiley">Smiley</a></li>

<li><a href="One-bit_message" title="One-bit message">One-bit message</a>

<ul><li><a href="Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Silent_service_code" title="Silent service code">Silent service code</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Unconscious_communication" title="Unconscious communication">Unconscious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Microexpression" title="Microexpression">Microexpression</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-verbal_leakage" title="Non-verbal leakage">Non-verbal leakage</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multi-faceted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affect_display" title="Affect display">Affect display</a></li>

<li><a href="Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_recognition" title="Emotion recognition">Emotion recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="First_impression_(psychology)" title="First impression (psychology)">First impression</a></li>

<li><a href="Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Broader_concepts97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Broader concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_academic_language_proficiency" title="Cognitive academic language proficiency">Cognitive academic language proficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication" title="Communication">Communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_intelligence" title="Emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Nunchi" title="Nunchi">Nunchi</a></li>

<li><a href="People_skills" title="People skills">People skills</a></li>

<li><a href="Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_competence" title="Social competence">Social competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_cue" title="Social cue">Social cue</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_skills" title="Social skills">Social skills</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsaid" title="Unsaid">Unsaid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Further_information97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Further information</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aprosodia" title="Aprosodia">Aprosodia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X</a></li>

<li><a href="Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li>

<li><a href="Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dyssemia" title="Dyssemia">Dyssemia</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonverbal_learning_disorder" title="Nonverbal learning disorder">Nonverbal learning disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_(pragmatic)_communication_disorder" title="Social (pragmatic) communication disorder">Social (pragmatic) communication disorder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">Limbic system</a> / <a href="Limbic_lobe" title="Limbic lobe">Limbic lobe</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirror_neuron" title="Mirror neuron">Mirror neuron</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cold_reading" title="Cold reading">Cold reading</a></li>

<li><a href="Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">Lie detection</a></li>

<li><a href="Freudian_slip" title="Freudian slip">Freudian slip</a></li>

<li><a href="Tell_(poker)" title="Tell (poker)">Poker tell</a></li>

<li><a href="Advertising_research" title="Advertising research">Targeted advertising</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_processing_of_body_language" title="Computer processing of body language">Computer processing of body language</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_recognition_in_conversation" title="Emotion recognition in conversation">Emotion recognition in conversation</a></li>

<li><a href="Gesture_recognition" title="Gesture recognition">Gesture recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_facial_expression_databases" title="List of facial expression databases">List of facial expression databases</a></li>

<li><a href="Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ray_Birdwhistell" title="Ray Birdwhistell">Ray Birdwhistell</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Ekman" title="Paul Ekman">Paul Ekman</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_communication" title="Behavioral communication">Behavioral communication</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggressive</a></li>

<li><a href="Assertiveness" title="Assertiveness">Assertive</a></li>

<li><a href="Deference" title="Deference">Passive</a></li>

<li><a href="Passive-aggressive_behavior" title="Passive-aggressive behavior">Passive-aggressive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Impression_management" title="Impression management">Impression management</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-communication" title="Meta-communication">Meta-communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Monastic_sign_languages" title="Monastic sign languages">Monastic sign lexicons</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Verbal communication</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manual-tactile verbal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign language</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_signing" title="Tactile signing">Tactile signing</a></li>

<li><a href="Tadoma" title="Tadoma">Tadoma</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art and literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Mimoplastic_art" title="Mimoplastic art">Mimoplastic art</a></li>

<li><a href="Subtext" title="Subtext">Subtext</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br>processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li>

<li><a href="Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li>

<li><a href="Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inbreeding_avoidance" title="Inbreeding avoidance">Inbreeding avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Kin_recognition" title="Kin recognition">Kin recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li>

<li><a href="Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li>

<li><a href="Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Species-typical_behavior" title="Species-typical behavior">Species-typical behavior</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br><a href="Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a>

<ul><li><a href="Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptive_unconscious" title="Adaptive unconscious">Adaptive unconscious</a>/<a href="Unconscious_cognition" title="Unconscious cognition">Unconscious cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_specialization" title="Cognitive specialization">Cognitive specialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a>/<a href="Domain-specific_learning" title="Domain-specific learning">learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a>

<ul><li><a href="Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_cognition" title="Numerical cognition">Numerical cognition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Number_sense" title="Number sense">Number sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Approximate_number_system" title="Approximate number system">Approximate number system</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_individuation_system" title="Parallel individuation system">Parallel individuation system</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a>

<ul><li><a href="Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li>

<li><a href="Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br><a href="Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li>

<li><a href="Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li>

<li><a href="Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li>

<li><a href="Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a>

<ul><li><a href="Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li>

<li><a href="Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li>

<li><a href="Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li>

<li><a href="Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li>

<li><a href="Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li>

<li><a href="Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">Incest taboo</a>

<ul><li><a href="Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li>

<li><a href="Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li>

<li><a href="Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li>

<li><a href="Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_ethology" title="Cognitive ethology">Cognitive ethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_psychology" title="Comparative psychology">Comparative psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_cognition" title="Animal cognition">Animal</a>/<a href="Comparative_cognition" title="Comparative cognition">comparative cognition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">Animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_consciousness" title="Animal consciousness">Animal consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_language" title="Animal language">Animal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_navigation" title="Animal navigation">Animal navigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_training" title="Animal training">Animal training</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal-made_art" title="Animal-made art">Animal-made art</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_bias_in_animals" title="Cognitive bias in animals">Cognitive bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_in_animals" title="Emotion in animals">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="G_factor_in_non-humans" title="G factor in non-humans"><i>g</i> factor in non-humans</a></li>

<li><a href="Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Number_sense_in_animals" title="Number sense in animals">Number sense</a></li>

<li><a href="Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_mind_in_animals" title="Theory of mind in animals">Theory of mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisher's_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>/<a href="Acquired_characteristic" title="Acquired characteristic">acquired characteristics</a></li>

<li><a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a></li>

<li><a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li>

<li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Species" title="Species">Species</a></li>

<li><a href="Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><b><a href="List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Evolutionary psychology</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3APsychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology portal</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-02" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Display_rules&oldid=1288460259">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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